The state as a whiteman, the whiteman as a <i>/’hun</i> : personhood, recognition, and the politics of knowability in the Kalahari

The article is dedicated to the loving memory of !A|’xuni. Ju|’hoansi east central Namibia sometimes refer state as a whiteman and /’hun (steenbok). In this article, I contextualize these naming practices by tracing history colonial encounters on fringes Western Kalahari through small-scale animist perspective. then discuss what means for concept ‘recognition’, which treat two-way intersubjective process making oneself un/knowable others. argue that have engaged in parallel processes mis/recognition vis-à-vis their Others. By failing enter into reciprocal relations with Ju|’hoansi, remained outside Ju|’hoansi's social universe thus compromised own personhood. L’État en tant qu'homme blanc, l'homme blanc que : identité, reconnaissance et politique de la connaissance dans le Résumé Le ju|’hoan du centre-est Namibie parle parfois l'État comme d'un homme L'autrice contextualise ces pratiques d'appellation retraçant l'histoire des rencontres coloniales cette micro-société animiste aux frontières occidental. Elle discute ensuite définition « », processus intersubjectif bilatéral consistant à se faire connaître autres ou non. défend l'idée les ont entrepris parallèles mé/reconnaissance leurs Tiers colonisés. En ne parvenant pas établir réciproques avec ju|’hoan, l’État sont restés dehors l'univers ainsi compromis leur propre identité. One windy early afternoon November 2018, was sitting company four young Ju|’hoan men shadow small brick house resettlement farm Skoonheid Namibia.11 are group (former) hunter-gatherers, speaking Northern Khoisan language belonging Ju family. Currently, communities reside northeastern west northwestern Botswana. Together other hunter-gatherer groups southern Africa, they collectively known San. term ‘Ju|’hoansi’ designates people, language, whereas ‘Ju|’hoan’ an adjective (as ‘a man’). Estimates differ but Biesele & Hitchcock (2011) report about 11,000 living Botswana today. were passing hand-rolled cigarette Kxao22 Not real name. – tall, slim man his mid-twenties recounting recent successful hunting trip. night, Kxao had dreamt two fat warthogs standing particular spot Boer farm's fence. believed dream sent him Jesus, who taken pity because poor luck late. next morning, approached friend he goes and, after discussing chances, convinced one another should go. took metal spears ventured direction seen dream, followed dogs. After walking some hours, stopped rest; then, just lighting cigarette, dogs sensed something alarmed hunters. there were: waiting them With help dogs, hunters managed kill animals, confirming Kxao's conviction Jesus taking care during difficult period life. All us heard story from before. Yet, characteristically lively manner many recount past experiences, describing detail pace at walked, places passed, things seen, heard, sensed. remaining men, all relatives, attentively gestures expressions, occasionally interrupting clarifying questions or comments dramatized unfolding front them. Suddenly, we startled arrival white bakkie33 Pick-up car, Afrikaans. amidst cloud fine sand dust. vehicle parked clearing under big tree served communal meeting point, 50 metres away us, well-dressed government officials Ministry Land Reform stepped out it. minutes, crowd gathered around them, everyone talking trying get attention important men. As looking crowd, discern purpose unexpected visit, received friends, long, deep inhale dismissive gesture, said: ‘Look Ju|’hoansi! (/’hun) has come started complain each other’. agreed (e-he) not before back story. /’Hun word meaning ‘steenbok’: antelope species much valued its meat wit. It also mean ‘whiteman’: particularly smart useful perspective either, yet grown dominate lived experience region. above episode, well few similar episodes witnessed over fourteen years carrying ethnographic work among my companions referred black whiteman. My aim theorize ethnography western Namibia. analysis, make use several themes emerged literature (post-)foragers colonial/state systems. consider relationship surrounding physical, social, political environment personified subjects dimensions ontological position recognition. Globally, different shapes meanings: aspiring symbol progress development (Jacka 2007), immoral repulsive Other (Basso 1988; Nyamnjoh Page 2002), anything in-between (Bashkow 2000; 2006). uncertain environments rife environmental degradation, embodied malevolent spirits monsters (Bubandt 2019; Glaskin 2018). And contexts, (Clark 1997). Following Anderson (1991), Clark writes Huli Highlands Papua New Guinea ‘imagine’ ‘big man’, morally bound kinship egalitarian followers. Corruption greed turn ‘white man’ (1997: 80-2). For Clark, Huli's imagining step towards nation, place Zooming Namibian context, based Himba, Herero, Owambo people northern part country, Friedman adds state-related imagination situating citizens dialectical upheld prism paternalism. Citizens margins state, asserts, relate recursive kinship-derived metaphors, obligations drawbacks arise this. Strauss observes, talk ‘imaginaries’ dominated science field extent it become ‘culture cultural knowledge new clothes’ (2006: 322). Yet often theorized grand abstract level disregards relevance size type organization rationale behind Taylor, example, imaginaries large-scale structures, extend ‘beyond immediate background’ rooted practice (2002: 107, cited 2006: 333). terms, (1991) asserts modern nations rest members’ ability imagine themselves community, which, despite being limited, still beyond individual's reach. will elaborate below, kinship-based relatedness between margins, described (2011), does hold up scrutiny Furthermore, more crucial argument here, reference act imagination, suggested (1997) Huli. do cannot role They can; however, ‘ontological priority’ (Jackson 1998) lies elsewhere. Bird-David (2017a; 2017b) poignantly remarks, most scholarship tiny-scale societies been carried scale-blind perspective, resulted such creatively cast naturally larger units, ethnic groups. (2017a) reminds forager world relatives. From seldom exceeds active human nonhuman persons whom engages personal day-to-day-level. words, predicated upon ‘knowability’, imagination. return point shortly. San studies undergone dramatic course six decades. Research expanded ‘counting calories’ ‘defining categories’ (Guenther 2007: 371) exploring groups’ dependency resistance systems (Lee 2005; Suzman Widlok 1999), various engagement local global sociopolitical movements (Biesele 2011; Saugestad 2001). Guenther (2017) turn’ (Descola 2013; Viveiros Castro 2014) pervaded late underexplored regard African (post-)foragers, existing archaeological data utility context (see 1993; Dowson 2007; 2015; 2019). If perceive potentially shoes others, if Others (whether nonhuman) themselves, very basis animism likely break down principle depends unbounded potential identification (2001: 416). What allows other's shoes? (and existential danger of) corporeal transformations (Viveiros 1998; Willerslev capacity (Bird-David 2017a), self food sharing (Widlok 2019) interspecies space, respect, affection 1992) common characteristics phenomenon. A unifying thread intimations participation, experiential nature leads intimate first-hand knowability share sociality (Ingold 2000). Despite model's welcomed departure relativism, positive impact others’ worlds seriously drawn critique. Most notably, Erazo Jarrett argued emphasis alterity risks homogenizing indigenous populations reiterates primitive-modern divide. part, ontologists disregarded historical change, marked contemporary globally (Erazo 2017; see Kohn Pedersen Animist (precolonial, colonial, postcolonial) same lens any encounter multiple lives unfold. Colonization encapsulation states, incorporation economy, engendered scale. Therefore, be concerned turning thinking both theoretical empirical levels. This attempt that. purposes bridging ontology political, ‘recognition’. provides framework analysis diverse contexts characterized structural injustice inequality. speaks marginalization reluctance recognize below. self-actualization can only achieved intersubjectively (Taylor 1992), presupposes understanding individual group, fits relational ontology. working definition ‘recognition’ serves comes Povinelli's reading Kojève (1980), states ‘the desire recognition differentiates non-human animals’. existence ‘double emptiness’: is, others; ‘to object another's desire’ (Povinelli 2012). standpoint, competing powers participate (un)knowable (un)desirable another. Hegelian sense, (Anerkennung) spirit (Geist) (Williams Cartesian framework, differentiation understood humans animals/objects. distinction opens possibilities exploration personhood, necessarily dualist (persons versus non-persons) processual persons’ granting personhood withholding argue, constitutes ‘vital need’ 1992: 26); demarcates boundaries itself. simple. Others’ inability (or unwillingness) establish ground lack know asymmetric relationship, pushed constitute Pedersen's [2001] metaphor holes) universe. hope convince reader remainder referring whiteman, /’hun, cosmological depersonification, misrecognition. valency relationality expand anthropological (inter)subjects constituting latter agents sense encroaching Ultimately, line space discussions change within anthropology beyond. follows, outline trajectory paternalism post-independence times sociohistorical material detailing land dispossession, subjugation, democratic state. Afterwards, explore steenbok Finally, ongoing encompassing Prior settlement, home scattered Bantu Though little evidence interactions groups, records suggest forms co-operation competition depending number dynamic factors (Gewald 1999; Lindholm 2006; 1995; White starting German encroachment end nineteenth century, beginning reshaping region's sociopolitical, ethnic, physical landscape history. settlement intensified fell mandate South Africa First World War. Between 1920 1930, impoverished farmers established hundreds cattle farms (Van Rooyen Reiner 1995). 1950s, main shaping Omaheke's heterogeneous profile (Afrikaner, Damara, San, Herero) already (Sylvain 1999).44 Besides Omaheke ǃXoon Naro. Dieckmann, Thiem, Dirkx Hays (2014) mention ’N|oha families Herero pastoralist group. Damara Khoe whose current socioeconomic situation Apartheid racial segregation enforced measures, legacy continues organize hierarchies power oppression post-apartheid dispossession lasting negative impacts. Starting 1914, administration set aside portions ‘native reserves’ (later ‘communal areas’) major Namibia: Herero/Mbanderu Tswana. Already rule, drew ‘Eingeborenen’ (Bantu natives) ‘Buschleute’ (Bushmen) adopted policies coercion measures (Gordon Sholto Douglas 2000: 52). Under allocation policy, no nomadic inhabiting partially guided access police zone creation ‘Bushman would attract stock thieves, lead overhunting, impede ‘Bushmen's’ labour 2009: 43). Omaheke, policy estrangement either native reserves, where became bonded manual labourers. unoccupied corridors reserves. 1920, ‘Masters Servants Proclamation’ allowed track capture workers left workplace without permission. 1970s, ‘free’ areas declared property, prohibiting ‘illegal’ occupation. this, lost last tracts could freely pursue traditional subsistence risking persecution (Suzman institution everyday government. Instead, baasskap. Defined ‘unabashed dominance’ (Miller 2016: xv), Kalahari, baasskap form male owner's paternalistic control female minor dependants workers. Farm owners rationalized having workers’ long-term interests mind, comprehend themselves. practical included moral betterment governed, coercion, ‘ranging specific liberal freedoms violence’ (Gibbon, Daviron Barral 2014: 172). powerful appears, time develop replace looser interdependence secured certain benefits parties inhospitable region 2014; Russell 1979). (1979) describe relationships ‘Bushmen’ Botswanan side border ‘knowing’ people's close proximity coexistence harsh environment. knowing, must mistaken knowing discussed article. anything, occurred across ‘rigidly defined, racially cast, boundary’, strived maintain start 150). consolidation production, reliance cash increased need dependable labour, (then West African) reinforced dominance total institutions, support 32). oubase55 Plural ‘oubaas’, owner (lit. boss’), ‘farm government[s]’ full attempted regulate every aspect lives: gender roles, organization, beliefs, freedom movement 2001: 728). Just bushveld needed tamed turned profitable land, so inhabitants brought control, civilized, made proper At independence 1990, 52 per cent suited farming freehold title (white commercial farms). embarked massive democratization process, notably comprehensive educational reforms (Government Republic 1991). principles underpinned reform expansion (black) areas, purchase area farmers, previous farmland, acquisition ‘willing buyer, willing seller’ (Ministry Lands, Resettlement Rehabilitation 1997; uncertainty selling off leaving country. Many others dismissed diminished go to, generational farmworkers squatter camps along roads result disruptions, largest beneficiary redistribution Omaheke. programme landless government-owned training production activities objective independent producers. More than thirty independence, goal majority beneficiaries largely unemployed, unable subsist alone, heavily dependent survival Ninkova 2017). farm, resides extended family, earliest biggest projects 280 inhabitants. it, community Owambo, Kavango, households (Dirkx Alweendo Life tension minimal communities, unrelated families. contrast, members complex exchange networks, facilitated intricate visiting patterns. An economic, psychological day-to-day well-being therefore, mostly determined size, resourcefulness, viability kin network. Over years, initiatives introduce Skoonheid. However, overgrazing, drought, veterinary help, general commitment keep compromising endeavour. irrigation garden seasonal plot. While manage procure produce conflicts members, equipment, failure equipment ruin season labour. base inadequately easily depleted. gathering veldkos,66 Edible bush plants, while readily practised (mostly women), sustainable Hunting prohibited law. hunt, amount wildlife reportedly limited puts risk prosecution trespass. reliable welfare older pensions child orphans’ aid. Residents cut block kinfolk farms. Reports indicated conditions improved better, jobs scarcer unreliable (Dieckmann al. Sylvain secure salary source, aspire those succeed few. long Skoonheid, father, industrious forties, find ‘good’ job 2017, lose year He since found job; good, receiving lower wage co-workers. Kxao, hand, similarly struggled permanent placement. Neither wanted first place. completed grade 7, sporadically hired month erect fence, clear bush, dance tourists, perform unskilled misbehaved when task completed. involvement alternative securing meat: ‘I thought myself: “Let me try life”’. describes ‘fiercely egalitarian’ 1979: 24), egalitarianism challenged events disrupted life including loss, regional increasing unequal resources, continue conform aspects lives. Vocal speak decisions behalf quickly unpopular. Boasting (not terms goods, good fortune) socially ostracized When stresses importance staying humble prior hunt itself details warthog beginning, explained line, spear heads pointing backwards faster use.77 pointed forward, may alert wild animals hunter's presence bush. Had hunter missed animal, second suppressed killing animal himself passed order increase party's collective chance success. case, speared divided equally asked done reported given relatives sold shared insisted initial Their thoughts bring future trips, hoped. accompanied fierce autonomy. Social harmony ‘no tells you do’, adults children avoid dictated costs. words man: ‘Happiness forcing don't want do, conversations might arguments’. visible invisible overwhelming unfolds scrutinizing gaze. Since ac